Mohandas Karamchand Mahatma Gandhi

â€Å"I am not a saint who has strayed in politics. I am a politician who is trying to become a saint. † Gandhi In the 1800†³s most of the cultures and ethnic groups in South Africa were treated with less respect than deserved. The Indians were forced into South Africa because of the British Empire expansion. These Indians, mostly poor, were in a system close to slavery. In South Africa the non-whites didn†t get very many job opportunities. In South Africa they had very few landholders, teachers, or businessmen who were non-whites. Most of the non-whites got their education in a mission and took up Christianity. The Colored people were a mix of different ethnics except black or white. These people were the 2nd largest group in South Africa. The Indians were mostly farmers, but some went on to do their education and became rich with their shops and warehouses. The British ruled the people in South Africa. In April of 1893, a lawyer by the name of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi came to South Africa on a business trip to take a case in an Indian Firm. Gandhi only intended on staying in South Africa for the case. Little did he know that it would change his life forever. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2nd 1869 in Porbander, Kaithiawad. He was born to Karamchand and Putibai Gandhi. Gandhi was the youngest son of his fathers† fourth wife. In 1876 Mohandas started Primary school. During this time Gandhi was betrothed to Kasturba, which his parents had to set up. Gandhi went on to high school tin Rajkot, named Alfred high school. As a school boy Gandhi was a shy person who never talked to any of his classmates, but in 1883 he was married to Kasturba. They were both 13. When Gandhi married he didn†t think anything of it, and thought it meant he could control his wife†s life. Kasturba was a little more controlling of her own life, and let Gandhi know when he stepped over the line. The tradition for youth marriages is very common for Hindus. Two years later on November 16th of 1885 Mohandas† life took a sudden turn when his father died, after by being ill for two years. Gandhi was not there when his father died; he had left moments before. In 1887 Gandhi applied to college, and got in at Samaldas College, but Gandhi found the studies hard and only stayed for one term.

Project topics †Journal of Engineering Research and Studies Essay

Journal of Engineering Research and Studies E-ISSN0976-7916 Research Paper SEPARATION OF OIL AND PECTIN FROM ORANGE PEEL AND STUDY OF EFFECT OF pH OF EXTRACTING MEDIUM ON THE YIELD OF PECTIN Shekhar Pandharipande*a, Harshal Makodeb Address for Correspondence *a- Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Bharat Nagar, Amravati Road, Nagpur,India. b B. Tech student, Department of Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology, Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Bharat Nagar, Amravati Road, Nagpur, India. ABSTRACT An orange, specifically, the sweet orange (Citrus sinensis (L.)) is the most commonly grown tree fruit in the world. The present work addresses to the development of the part of the process needed for the extraction of value added products like orange oil and pectin from orange peel, which is the waste of orange juice processing industry. The outcome of the present work highlighted that the sweet orange peels are good source of orange oil and pectin and does have the potential to become important raw material for food processing industries. Two methods namely simple distillation & leaching have been explored for separation of oil from peels. The remains of cake in this part is further treated for isolation of pectin. It is found from the experimental observations that the peel source, for extraction of pectin, when taken after extracting orange oil through simple distillation gives higher yield than leaching residue. It is concluded that the process in which orange oil is first extracted using technique of simple distillation followed by acid extraction of pectin is most suitable for industrial production for isolation of pectin. These results demonstrate the successful extraction of orange oil and pectin, providing potential benefits for  industrial extraction of pectin from an economic and environmental point of view. KEYWORDS orange peel, pectin extraction, orange essential oil 1.1 INTRODUCTION An orange, specifically, the sweet orange (Citrus  sinensis (L.)) is the most commonly grown tree fruit  in the world. Orange trees are widely cultivated in  tropical and subtropical climates for the sweet fruit,  which is peeled or cut (to avoid the bitter rind) and  eaten whole, or processed to extract orange juice, &  also for the fragrant peel. Citrus fruits are at the top  not only in total production, but also in economic  value. The albedo is the main source of pectin. Pectin  includes all the esterified polygalacturonic acids at  different degree of neutralization. In the presence of  saccharine and small quantities of organic acids  (usually citric acid), pectins gelatinized, and this  property is exploited by the agrochemistry and  pharmaceutical industries for pectin isolation. Orange  essential oil is present in small ductless gland  contained in the peel of the orange fruits. The main  constituent of orange peel essential oil is d-limone ne  (present to the extent of at least 90 %), which is the  only hydrocarbon present. The d-limonene is  extracted from orange rinds or solids. The rinds and  pulp are sent to an evaporator and the d-limonene is  steamed out. It is widely known for its pleasant scent  and degreasing properties. d-limonene is currently  being used in many applications such as chlorinated  solvents replacements, hand cleaners and sewage  treatments. The orange processing industry can get a  complete makeover if due importance is given for  separation of useful ingredient from orange peel.  Researchers and Scientists have been working on the  separation of oil and pectin from orange peel and  reporting their findings in journals of repute. A brief  summary includes orange peel: organic waste or  energetic resource(1), Waste to wealth: Industrial raw  materials potential of peels of Nigerian sweet orange  (Citrus sinensis)(2), method of distilling a volatile  constituent from liquid mixture(3), Optimization of  pectin acid extraction from passion fruit peel  (Passiflora edulis flavicarpa) using response surface  methodology(4), Extraction and Qualitative Assessment of African Sweet Orange Seed Oil(5), JERS/Vol. III/ Issue II/April-June, 2012/06-09 Comparisons between different techniques for waterbased extraction of pectin from orange peels(6) , microwave-assisted Isolation of essential oil of  Cinnamomum iners Reinw. ex Bl.: Comparison with  Conventional hydrodistillation(7), Microwave-assisted  extraction of pectin from orange peel(8), microbial  production of pectin from Citrus peel(9), Optimization  of Pectin Extraction from Peel of Dragon Fruit  (Hylocereus polyrhizus)(10), Determining the Yield  and Quality of Pectin from Fresh Peel & Pectin  Pomace(11) and Microbial Production of Pectin from  Citrus Peel(12) . The present work (13) explored the possibility of  separation of essential oils and pectin from the  orange peels. Nagpur is major orange producing  centre in the subcontinent and even recognised in the  name of oranges as, Orange city. 1.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS: The present work is divided into following parts: I. Separation of oil from peels. a) Using the method of simple distillation b) Using ethanol as solvent in the method of leaching II. Extraction of pectin from oil peels a) From fresh peels, the leftover b) From dried cake remained after simple distillation and leaching as in part I 1.2.1 Separation of oil from peels: Raw Material: The raw material taken under examination for the extraction of orange oil (d-limonene) and pectin is orange peel. Orange peels are removed from fresh oranges which are procured from local market and which were harvested in the month of December 2011 to January 2012. Methods: Simple distillation is employed for removal of essential oil from orange peel. Dried and fined ground orange peel powder is added with known quantity of water which is simple distilled off for approximately one hour. The solid remains of the residue are dried to obtain the dry cake. The distillate Journal of Engineering Research and Studies E-ISSN0976-7916 resulted in to two phases, oil and water. Two phases  are separated and orange oil is obtained. For 350 gm  of orange powder taken, 8 ml of oil and 126.3 gm of  dried cake is obtained. The method of leaching is also explored for removal  of oil from peels. 380 gm of fresh orange peel are extracted with 225 ml of ethanol. After adequate  contacting, two phases, solid and liquid are separated,  198 gm of wet slurry resulted into 150 gm of dry  cake. However oil could not be recovered following  this method. The dried cake obtained is further  treated for separation of pectin in next part of present  work.  1.2.2 Extraction of pectin from orange peels:  The objective of this part of work is extraction and  isolation of pectin from fresh orange peel sample and  the dry cake sample left after extraction of oil using  simple distillation as in part I. The objective includes  the study of the effect of pH of the medium on the  yield of pectin extracted. The process flow chart is as shown in the figure 1. Table no 1: Experimental observations of yield of pectin at different pH Fig no 1: Process flow chart for extraction of pectin from orange peel sample Citric acid in distilled water solutions of desired pH  values 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are prepared. Orange peel samples weighing 10 gm each are dipped in to the  solution and heated at 800C for 10 minutes. After  cooling the solution, it is filtered using cloth filter  and Whatman filter paper under vacuum. Ethanol is  added to the filtered solution to facilitate filtration of  pectin. The solution is filtered using fine filter cloth  or centrifuge at 8000 rpm for 15 min at 100C to  separate jelly pectin which is dried under vacuum at  500C and -100 mmHg gauge for two hours. Dried  pectin is thus obtained. The observations are given in  table no 1.  Yield % of pectin is based on the gram of peel sample taken, and is calculated by formula as given below; Fig no 2: Pectin yield at different pH of extracting medium 1.2.2.1: Comparison of yield of pectin from the dry cake residue left after simple distillation and leaching: Same procedure is applied for separation of pectin in  this part of present work, as followed in part 1.2.2.the  observations are tabulated in table 2 & pictorial  details & output of process are depicted in fig 3. Table no 2: Experimental observations of  comparison of yield of pectin from the dry cake  residue left after simple distillation and leaching  where Ypec (%) is the extracted pectin yield in per cent (%), P is the amount of dry pectin in g and Bi is the initial amount of orange peel in gram. Results and discussion: The maximum yield of pectin is obtained at   extraction medium pH of 1. However negligible yield  is obtained at pH of 4 and 5 as can be seen from  graph plotted between pectin yield % obtained for  various values of pH of medium as shown in fig 2. JERS/Vol. III/ Issue II/April-June, 2012/06-09 Journal of Engineering Research and Studies Result and discussion: The yield of pectin obtained is highest in turbid  extract, but this might be due to some suspended  impurities present in the extract. The maximum  overall yield of the pectin is obtained from orange  peel residue sample through simple distillation. Therefore, in the process of orange oil and pectin  extraction from orange peel, it is recommended on  basis of results obtained, that to first extract oil using  simple distillation and then isolate pectin with acid  hydrolysis technique. 1.3 CONCLUSION Nagpur region is well known in central Asia as  largest orange producing region. It is also known as  the California of India, producing excellent quality  oranges in large number. Though it has great  production of oranges, the downstream processing  and value added product manufacturing technology is  not yet developed. The present work is dedicated for E-ISSN0976-7916 the development of the part of the process technology  needed for the extraction of value added products i.e.  orange oil and pectin from orange peel, which is the  waste of orange juice processing industry. The  present work revealed that the sweet orange peels are  good source of orange oil and pectin and does have  the potential to become important raw material for  food processing industries. It is found from the  experimentation that the peel source, for extraction of  pectin, when taken after extracting orange oil through  simple distillation gives higher yield than leaching  residue. So it can be concluded that the process in  which orange oil is first extracted using technique of  simple distillation followed by acid extraction of  pectin is most suitable for industrial production. These results demonstrate the successful extraction of  orange oil and pectin, providing potential benefits for  industrial extraction of pectin from an economic and  environmental point of view. Fig no 3: Pictorial presentation of the process for comparison of yield of pectin from the dry cake residue left after simple distillation and leaching Amboni. (2009). optimisation of pectin acid extraction REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. Martà ­n M.A, Siles J.A.1, El Bari H, Chica A. F, Università © Ibn Tofail. Facultà © dos Sciences. Kenitra (Maroc) .(2008). Orange Peel: Organic Waste or Energetic Resource? Tobias I. Ndubuisi Ezejiofor, N. V. Eke, R. I. Okechukwu, R. N. Nwoguikpe and C. M. Duru. (2011) Waste to wealth: Industrial raw materials potential of peels of Nigerian sweet orange (Citrus sinensis). African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 10(33), pp. 6257-6264. Gorden P. Gerow, Davenport, Fla.(1982). Method Of Distilling A Volatile Constituent From Liquid Mixture. United States Patent, 4,326,926. Erika Kliemann, Karina Nunes de Simas, Edna R. Amante, Elane Schwinden Prudeˆncio, Reinaldo F. Teo ´ filo, Ma ´ rcia M. C. Ferreira & Renata D. M. C. JERS/Vol. III/ Issue II/April-June, 2012/06-09 5. 6. 7. from passion fruit peel (Passiflora edulis flavicarpa) using response surface methodology. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 44, 476–483. Nwobi BE, Ofoegbu O & O B Adesina. (2006). Extraction And Qualitative Assessment Of African Sweet Orange Seed Oil. African Journal of food agriculture nutrition and development. Vol. 6 ISSN 1684-5374. S. Yeoh, J. Shi, T.A.G. Langrish. (2008). Comparisons between different techniques for water-based extraction of pectin from orange peels. Elsevier, Desalination 218, 229–237. Weerachai Phutdhawong, Rungthip Kawaree, Samart Sanjaiya, Waya Sengpracha & Duang Buddhasukh.(2007). Microwave-Assisted Isolation of Essential oil of innamomum iners Reinw. ex Bl.: Journal of Engineering Research and Studies Comparison with Conventional Hydrodistillation. Molecules ISSN 1420-3049 8. Zheng Jie, Yang Ting, Wu Qiang, Li Jing, Wang YaNa. (2009). Microwave-assisted Extraction of Pectin from Orange Peel. Vol. 30, No. 20, p. 134-137. 9. P.Y. Tang, C.J. Wong and K.K. Woo. (2011). Optimization of Pectin Extraction from Peel of Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus). Asian Journal of Biological Sciences, ISSN 1996-3351, Knowledgia Review, Malaysia, 4 (2): 189-195. 10. P. G. Crandall, R. J. Braddock, and A. H. Rouse. (1978). Determining The Yield And Quality Of Pectin From Fresh Peel And Pectin Pomace. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 91:109-111. 11. Takuo Sakai & Minoru Okushima. (1998). Microbial Production of Pectin from Citrus Peel.Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 39, No. 4, p. 908912. 12. Harshal Makode (2012).Project report submitted for B Tech to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University,Nagpur. JERS/Vol. III/ Issue II/April-June, 2012/06-09 E-ISSN0976-7916

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